To Eat or Not To Eat Essay Example for Free

To Eat or Not To Eat EssayHello, my name is Dr. Rachel Green. I am an lose disorder counseling specialist. Today I would like to talk with you slightly two forms of go throughing disorders, obesity and anorexia nervosa. In our discussion, I would like to be qualified to give you a new perspective on fare, hunger and satiety hoping that it may benefit those who live with these disorders.Obesity is defined as when a soul has maintained a ashes mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher. People with obesity break many health risks which include hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, bone health problems in sum total to many other health complications and illnesses. Anorexia nervosa is defined as a mental illness because it refers to case-by-cases who refuse to halt their charge within 85% of the standard weight for their age and height. Those who live with anorexia express deep anxiety about gaining any weight in addition to their corpse image being dramatically distorte d. These individuals refuse to eat and induce a habit of going on rush binges, which they follow with vomiting. Their excuse for this is that they have to do this to keep what they view as an acceptable weight. This illness is very severe and is life threatening in virtually cases. It can result in heart failure, kidney failure and damage to the brain.Both anorexia and obesity are studied in depth. Several new theories have brought new light to the treatment of these conditions. We give overly discuss numerous hunger and satiety myths as surface as facts aboutthe maintenance and development of these disorders. We will have a detect for QA in the subsequent part of the program.There are a wide variety of theories that attempt to address why we choose to eat or non to eat. Hunger and satiety have bio-psychosocial factors that are detailed in theories relating to obesity and anorexia.From an evolutionary perspective, we can see that periods occurred in which shortages existed in our nutriment supplies. These may have contributed to obesity as a part of our genetic predispositions as a means of storing food when it became available so that those calories would be available to us later for our use when food supplies became scarce. This relates also to the desire to eat great quantities of high calorie foods. Consumption of high calorie foods leads to fat storage of that foods energy. We also know that we require at least 3 solid meals daily to maintain our normal weight. This social connection to normality can be carried forward into social interactions that take place when consuming foods that are more palatable due to high fat content or high dulcify content. This carries forward into our understanding of the motivations for eating.Such factors do influence our eating patterns. Additional factors play into the choices that we make that may conflict with our ability to maintain a rosy and ideal body weight. Calories are trim downed during exercise an d if we do not balance our caloric intake well with our exercise levels then we will not be in balance. People also have different rates of metabolism, which affects their ability to burn or store fat. Thermogenesis, which is a non-exercise activity where energy is dissipated, is also relevant to this discussion.Studies in Biopsychology have shown that we do not eat due to the need to fuel the body, but eat because of our learned, embedded responses. Studies show that people die hard to eat larger quantities in social settings than when alone. This factor alone would be a significant contributor to obesity if we correlate socializing with food.Satiety has shown to be related to the types of food we eat. We need certain nutrients and minerals. Candy doesnt include these nutrients and minerals, and so our bodies do not get satisfied or full when we eat them. Meals that contain the proper mix of nutrients and minerals yield a more complete satiety. Some foods contain more of the nutr ients required to allow us to actually feel full.Anorexia includes some of the same issues of social factors that influence our views of acceptable healthy weight and eating. The inclination to eat in social situations can be skewed in the opposite direction for some individuals. They can be so insecure that they do not meet their bodys needs due to their odors about others perceptions of them.Anorexia involves a great fear of weight gain and the individual displays starvation habits of eating or alternate binge and purge cycles of eating. These patterns are learned eating behaviors. Binging is an aspect of anorexia that can help us to see how hunger and satiety are related to mind over matter because the mind is overtaking the bodys need for nutrition in this disease. The binge is meeting the bodys need, but the purge that follows is catering to the corrupted ideal as the individual sees it, so satiety no longer has a positive value.The start and development of anorexia is specifi c to the individual because external factors contribute to the development and beginning of this disease. The most common onset factor is dieting. Dieting is generally undertaken in response to socially perceived and abnormal expectations. There seems to be a connection mingled with weight gain and food intake that defies the positive motivation that is normally connected to satiety and healthy eating habits. The value of the food incentive is woolly-headed in the negative contribution of feelings for weight control.In this discussion today we have reviewed a number of myths and facts relating to these two diseases. What questions do you have about anorexia or obesity?Question 1 I want to know if my parents obesity is the cause ofmy own obesity.Answer Your parents obesity may have given you a genetic predisposition that affects your ability to maintain an ideal weight but isnt the only factor. The Bio-psychosocial theory gives us the evidence to understand that you have the obsti nacy to control your own weight in a healthy manner. You can learn to rehabilitate yourself with regard to your expectations and eating behaviors. This will give you greater satiety and a healthier prognosis.Exercise is also a critical factor in controlling your weight. A proper, regular practice can help you to burn calories. The combination of proper intake and proper exercise can give you a healthy weight. Overeating is not the response to need, but is a continuation of values and habits about food that are not healthy.Question 2 I eat the same foods and amounts as my girlfriend, but she does not gain weight and I do. What makes this happen?Answer This would be because her basal metabolism and differs from yours significantly. She has a higher rate allowing her to digest foods more efficiently.Consumption is not the only factor in weight gain. You have to look at your own physical activity/exercise levels as well.Question 3 My family feels that I have become anorectic in respons e to my exposure to womens images as portrayed in magazines and on TV. This may be true, but I do not have any cravings for food. Why would that be so?Answer It may be true that you initially learned to connect extreme thinness with success and saucer and you chose to work toward that slanted ideal. Your dieting then contributed to this skewed viewpoint when you were able to lose weight in the beginning of your new eating patterns. You may have found yourself more beautiful due to the exposure to such idealized images and then failed to recognize later the health problems that this began to cause for you.I would attribute the feeling that you do not crave food at all to the negative value this skewed view placed on food. You look at food as a negative element in your life since you connect it only with weight gain instead of with nurture and health. Rehabilitation of your mind and body require you to nurture your body with healthy foods and exercise. It is possible to re-establish healthy eating patterns that can give you back your desire for and enjoyment of food.Question 4 I feel sick each time I eat, so I have taken to not eating. Can you tell me why this is?Answer I believe this relates to incentive values of food. You may have taught yourself that food will make you gain an unhealthy amount of weight and now you connect food only with negative things. If you begin by eating foods that you know are healthy for you then you can begin to view food as a positive thing again. Eating healthy foods and staying away from high sugar and high fat foods is a way to let your body respond well to what you eat. If your focus is on weight control rather than on health, you will be punishing your body for eating even healthy things.CitationsPinel, J. P. J. (2011). Biopsychology. (8th ed.). Allyn Bacon.To Eat Or Not To Eat. Anti Essays. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from the World Wide Web http//www.antiessays.com/free-essays/95995.html

Nightmares. The moment of terror Essay Example for Free

Nightmares. The moment of terror EssayThe moment of terror you feel when being chased by a masked killer, running for your life through a dark alley. You cry out and scream for help but no mavin can hear you. You fall, and before you know it, the masked killer is standing right in front of you. He pulls out an axe and you wake up drenched in sweat, rattlingizing it was all just a nightmare. We all meet stupefyd this moment, maybe to a greater extent than once. Nightmares can be very disturbing because it is knockout to understand what produces it and why it acts a certain way. Nightmare is defined as a dream during the rapid eye movement, which provokes intense negative feeling, such as panic, fear, terror, or anxiety. Everyone has experienced a nightmare one time or another in his or her lifetime. But what happens when nightmares start occurring constantly?The fact is more children experience nightmares more frequently than adults. It is estimated that 50 % of the populatio n does not experience nightmares, according to research done by Tucker Shaw. Approximately 5 to 10% of the population only remembers nightmares once a month, but only small percentage of the population remember nightmares that are disturbing enough effect their lives. match to Freud, the first psychologist who paid much attention to dreams, stated that nightmares occur based on painful experiences of the past, to startling events that occurred in childhood and even birth itself. These horrify memories of the past left behind psychic problems that an helpless infant could not solve in that given time period. In fact, any grieving experience may leave a nightmare sufferer in angst and guilt. In this perspective, built is associated with the energy used for repetition of undesirable thoughts occurring in both real life and dreams.A person constantly dreams about unfinished situation until that person is able to work through their guilt or angst. Freud called this situation a repetitio n compulsion. This pattern was as well portrayed in Shakespeares Macbeth. When Lady Macbeth wants Macbeth to kill the kind, first she does not feel any guilt for committing such a sin. But her guilt occurs itself in a nightmare, which makes her go insane.A physical illness can also cause nightmares, but it is not yet proven whether it is the illness or the stress that causes it. Neurological disorder can also be the cause associated with the occurrence of nightmares such as epilepsy and postencephalitic Parkinsonism. Stressful events in a persons life such as time of midterms/finals, jobs, moves, or the loss of a significant, can all produce nightmares.One proven generalisation of nightmares is that it always leaves a person feeling helpless. In frequent nightmares that involve getting chased by masked killer, or falling off a cliff, generally leaves the dreamer in distress and feeling powerless. A decrease in nightmares usually occurs as a dreamer becomes more confident, and more mature.thither are some myths about nightmares that are associated with demons or evil spirits that can be the cause of these unpleasant dreams. Some people believe that a person feels an anxiety attack when a demon is pressing up against a dreamers chest during their sleep. These anxiety attacks occurring during sleep were considered a pee-pee of black magic, or even affiliated with possession. Some people also believe that eating something distasteful before going to sleep maybe also be the cause of it, but there isnt any solid evidence for these myths. In psychology, there are different perspectives to nightmares. Some scholars believe that nightmares run through no actual function.However, others believe that nightmares reflect the actual fears and attitudes of the dreamer. In this study, a nightmare appears as a process of events that occurred during the day. Latest study proves that dreams do have an important function. Evidence suggests that dreaming, like most other physio logic events, is important for learning and memory processing, gives cognitive feedback about a persons psychical functioning and helps a person adapt to emotional and physical stress (Moffitt, 1993, p. 118).The themes of nightmares seem to be quite universal. These nightmares have symbolic interpretation and show the give away of personality where a problem most likely exits in real life. It seems as if nightmares have complex function.ReferencesNightmares. 123HelpMe.com. 30 Sep 2013. epoch life books. Dreams and Dreaming. 1990 Time life Books Inc. Tucker, Shaw. Dreams. New York 17th Street, 2000.

Sainsbury plc

Sainsbury plcIntroductionThis report will examine the pitch management with centering on how neuter could be introduced, implemented and how justification to variegate could be mnage. Therefore we sh completelybriefly look at the tack which had been taking place within sainsburysplc how it was mange and the success rate. It also evaluates the need for the transmute. How the s rejoinder holder psychoanalyst was done therefore the Sainsburys was apply and the mckinsey companionship.Task one 1.1 The background of the Sainsburys plcSainsbury plc is a registered p arntal confederation of Sainsburys Supermarts Ltd, which is popularly known as Sainsburys, a range of a function of super securities industrys in the United Kingdom with special focus on property and banking business. Sainsburys cyberspaces see 11% surge. MSN News. http// revolutionarys.uk.msn.com/uk/article.aspx?cp-documentid=16788775 Retrieved 2009-06-13.. Its estate has been estimated to be about 8.6 billion March 2007. Sainsburys was the market leader in the UK supermarket sector in much of the 20th century, yet lost its place as the UKs largest grocer to Tesco in 1995 and in lost 1995 and was pushed into third by ASDA in 2003. The companys performance has improved by CEO Justin King in 2004 since the launch of a recovery programme. The company has been reporting its 12th consecutive draw of sales growth. Despite predictions that Sainsburys would regain second seat in January 2008, Taylor Nelson Sofres data released in January 2008 shows Sainsburys market sh be at 16.4%, behind Asdas sh are of 16.7%, but in advance of Morrisons at 11.22%. This report shall evaluate the series of form programmes in the company under the last five socio-economic classs with special consideration to the change types of change, change processes and how the management has been able to deal with issues of stakeholder analytic thinking spot implementing the change and how resistance to change was dealt1.2 Business Transformation as a form of change which has occurred in Sainsbury within t. 2004-2009Developmental Changes in the year 2004 surrounded by 2000 and 2004, gibe Davis was chief executive of Sainsburys. The appointment of Davis was welcome by the Sainsburys investors and business experts it was believed that ht e appointment was exactly confirmed after the company has won the support of the Sainsbury family who kicked against the decision of making him the CEO in the early 1990s. ( Shah, Saied 2000. Sir Peter Davis brought back to take helm at Sainsburys (The Indep closureent (Newspaper Publishing) p.19). Within the first two year Sainsbury was able to raise its moolah above the target but later drop sharply in 2004 when compared with the performance of its major competitors.Davis was the architect of an almost 3 billion upgrade of stores, distribution and IT equipment, called Business Transformation Programme. . Business expansion and innovation strategy were used to imp lement the change.However his successor later discovered that most of the investment was much or less wasted and considered failed in his key close of meliorate availability. Fraction of the investments witness the construction of four in full modify depots, which was considered at 100 million each cost four times more than banal depots Townsend, Abigail 2006. ( How the Newbury process turned Sainsburys round. The Independent on Sunday (Independent Newspapers). http//www.findarticles.com/p/articles . Retrieved 2007-02-08. .However. Lack of accurate estimation and appropriate consultation of the stakeholder was fingered to have contributed to the failure of the protrude and the change programme.Though, enough information were not make public on the implication of change on workers and other relevant stakeholders, but the sharp dropping in the profit within the pithy period cold be used as yardstick to justify the reason while the project was considered better for droppingDev elopmental changes programme in year 2006Christensen spoke on the four automated depots introduced by Davis, that there was no single day went by without one, of the system developing if not all of them The systems were flawed. They most of the time to stop for four hours daily for repair maintenance. But because they were constantly breaking down you would be playing catch up. It was a vicious circle. Christensen believe it was a great err to build four such depots at a goal, instead of edifice one which could be thoroughly tested beforehand investing in another.Resuscitating of the Failed automated Project in 2007The launch of the recovery programme by king, Sainsburys proclaimed a further 12 million investment In 2007 in its depots in order maintain speed with sales growth and the removal of the failed automated systems from its depots. Since the launch of Kings recovery programmed, the company has reported fifteen consecutive quarters of sales growth, most novelly in Novemb er 2008. Early sales increases have been attributed to the new companys distribution system and the focus of the fresh and healthy food (Improved supply lifts Sainsburys. BBC News. 2005-03-24. http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4378035.stm. Retrieved 2006-10-11.)A transformational changeIn May 2007 Sainsburys determine five areas of focus to take the company from recovery to growth in order to transform its business strategy therefore it identified the following focus as key factors to core activates in line with the concept of comparative advantage and the repute chain (Michael p, 1985) the five core value include* long food at fair prices* Growth of non-food ranges* Reaching more customers through additional channels through opening of new convenience stores and growth of online nucleotide delivery and banking operations.* intricacy of supermarket space through new stores and development of the companys largely underdeveloped store portfolio.* Active property management 2009 updateTransformational changesSainsbury embraced the external barrier as change model through merger and acquisitions to achieve this changeSainsburys announced In March 2009 its intention to buy 24 stores from The Co-operative, 22 of which were Summerfield stores and the remain 2 were Co-op stores. These were among of their estate which The Co-operative were required to sell after the completion of the Summerfield takeover. (Guardian (2009-11-04).1.3 The issues which have made the company consider the changeThe loss of market position peter Davis Within the first two year Sainsbury was able to raise its profit above the target but later drop sharply in 2004 when compared with the performance of its major competitors.Davis was the architect of an almost 3 billion upgrade of stores, distribution and IT equipment, called Business Transformation Programme. This was among of the issues that necessitated the change1.4 The process which the change withalk place1.4.1 appellative of the need for changeAt the end of March 2004 Davis was elevated to the position of chairman and Justin King replaced him as the CEO. Justin King joined Sainsburys in 2004 from Marks and Spencer plc where he was a director with responsibility for its food division and Kings Super Markets, Inc. subsidiary in the United States. Schooled in Sol hull and a graduate of the University Of Bath, where he took a business judicatory degree, King was also previously a managing director at Ads with responsibility for hypermarkets.1.4.2 Shareholders consultation Gathering of useful data compulsory for the change from the relevant stakeholdersas part of his 6 month business review asking them what they wanted from the company and where the company could improve, King ordered a direct mail campaign to 1 million Sainsburys customers This confirm the commentary of retail analysts repot that the group was not ensuring that shelves are fully stocked, because of the IT systems introduced by Peter Davis. ( Sainsburys heads back to basics. BBC News. 2004-10-19. http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3755066.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-09.)1.4.3 Implementation of changeKing announced the results of his business review and his plans to revive the companys fortunes in a three year recovery plan entitled Making Sainsburys Great Again on 19th October 2004 . This was generally well received by both the stock market and the media. He used CHANGING STRUCTURES MODEL in his implementation of the change. As part of the Immediate plans, included lying off 750 headquarters ply were fixed off and around 3,000 shop-floor staff were recruited in order to improve the quality of service and the firms main problem of stock availability. The aim of the decision was to increase sales revenue by 2.5bn by the financial year ending in March 2008. Another important announcement was the decision to halving the dividend to increase the retained profit in order boost the financial capacity to funds price cuts and quali ty. Lawrence Christensen was also hired as supply chain director in 2004 having worked as an expert in logistics at Safeway but decided to leave as a result of the Morrison takeover. This marked the beginning of developmental change in the year 2006 as the company begin to witness advancements in its supply chain and the two abandon distribution center were reactivated2.0 Task 22.1 How the relevant stakeholder analysis was done during the changeBefore 2004, series of transformational changes have been taking place within the company. Though, it was recorded that most of the change produced a favorable result in the short run. But the shortfall of the change became so sharply and worst than the formal position of the company. Sainsbury plc did not only witness decline in profit but also lost market position to his arch rivers Tesco and Asda. Poor project assessment and lack of proper consultation with relevant stakeholders.2.1.1 CustomersHaving learnt from the previous mistake commi tted by the predecessors who had caused the organisation its place of pride in the market, King ordered a direct mail campaign to 1 million Sainsburys customers as part of his 6 month business review asking them what they wanted from the company and where the company could improve. This reaffirmed the commentary of retail analysts the group was not ensuring that shelves are fully stocked, this overdue to the failure of the IT systems introduced by Peter Davis.2.1.2 EmployeeAs one of the relevant stakeholder, employees are considered to be important to the success of any change introduce in an organization. The change affect people and people tend to react to changes. Negative reaction to change could mark the beginning of the failure of the new change while the positive reaction could fast track the success of such change programme. These confirmed by recent research conducted by mckinsey on the important of change to the organization and how important is people in the implementa tion of change and therefore suggested tactics that to thrivingly implement change. Employees were carried along in making the change by getting the employees involve at the beginning of change and in the process of implementation.Organizations need for changeConstantly, for all kinds of reasons, but achieving a true step change in performance is rare. Indeed, in a recent McKinsey survey of executives from around the world, only a third says that their organizations succeeded in doing so. Executives were also asked how their organizations designed and managed a recent change effort, how they engaged employees in it, and how involved senior leaders were. (http//blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.html)The results of the survey highlight several important strategies or methods that organizations use to transform themselves successfully. Hence, the Setting of top off and high aspirations for change is the mostly important. A second tactic is general in volvement of the whole organisation by engaging the whole company in the change effort through a wide different of ways it was believed that a highly involved and visible CEO is crucial, but that successful companies are also using series of other communication and accountability tactics to keep people involved. Far more methods than unsuccessful companies use, also notable successful companies are far likelier to communicate the need for change in a positive way, encouraging employees to build on success rather than focusing only if on fixing problems. (The McKinsey Quarterly conducted the survey in July 2008.). Therefore Sainsbury was able to draft in the interest of their workers in terms of human resource planning, development and developmental programme reward team management and flat organisation structure which enhance effective two ways communication system. (http//blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.html)2.1.3 ShareholdersOne of the objecti ves to exploit is the maximisation of the shareholders wealth. Organisation tents to satisfy the interest of this group while pursuing profitability and handsome return on investment. Hence inability of the past administration had lead to change of leadership before the period to be considered in this project. Maximisation of shareholders wealth was put at the centre of interest in all the change programmes.2.1.4 CompetitorThrough stakeholder analysis, competitor as always been a force to reckon with. Sainsbury was able to analysis his competitors to whom she as lost his place of precession in the market which had made her to settle for third position in the grocery market in up. Hence that is why Sainsbury has putting a masses marketing strategies in order to ensure customers satisfaction and retention through excellence customer service.2.2 Where the staff involved or considered in the changeIn the planning and the implementation process of changeThe target of the change progra mme was to improve customer patronage and to make more profit. Therefore workers were put at the centre of the change in order to make them have the thorough acquaintance of the change which was about to take place. Hence Sainsbury also embark on training and development. Staff got involved in the Implementation process as staff serve as a medium through new changes are being communicated to customers. Task 33.1 The significant change that took place in Mckinsey and companyTransformational change in Mckinsey and company with special attention on knowledge management over the YearsBetween I926 and 1950sMckinsey company was established in 1926 as an Accounting and Engineering Advisors. the was using a system merged approach which could be otherwise refers to as General Survey Outline basis of knowledge managements, the company was pursuing undeviating sequence of analysis goal strategy, policies, organization, facilities procedures and personnel, data which are to be synthesized an d think for themselves while solving clients problems. as a result of business boom, more hands were employed and the organizations value chain were broadened, more policies were created with the clients as the main stake holder putting them at the center of the activitiesThe company belief that every assignment must to bring more than revenue to the company, more of experience due to business expansion in the 20th century the company need more hand to meet the change magnitude drive these made the company to adopt generalist approach which leaves the problem solving task with hired experts. This was the beginning of the change in the organizationBetween 1950 and 1967Introducing the expert base problem solving system by the Bower lead administration. He assumed that a highly intelligent generalist (expert) could well diagnose client issues and through it professional capabilities solve the problem without waste of time and resources this was believed to be the appropriate way of traffic with the increase in demand which the company was enjoying at presentso instead of allowing the traditional practice where the collective, brainstorming section of solving client problems that encourage the participative system, which was the ethnical practices of the company before the business expansion, bower prefer to rely more on the solving client problems by the style of expertise. However, the knowledge issue of development within the organization was considered to be peripheral as the solving clients problem was believed to be core issues that is important if the customers demand is to be achieved and the business expansion goal is to be continues. The assumptions worked for short period as the company experience increase in sales and expansion of business spreading across the globe. This work well as the company witness a lot of expansion during the period in terms of market growth at the expense of internal growth (knowledge development), but look at the cultur al web of McKinley which is was known for participative system of clients problem solving system through which the knowledge were gathered developed and shared that enhance staffs improvement was not considered. living the problem solving in the hand of the expert in a company like mckinsey where knowledge remain the core activities when considering the value added to the end product(porter value chain 1985). The growth of the organization stopped within the short time.3.2 The key challenges the organization has faced in implementing changesIntegration of objectivity due to massive business expansion The massive business expansion which has led to the diversifying into other business had posse series of challenge to the company, the organization was growing big and the system of administration was also going more complex. This made series of change programmes to be difficult to implement. http//www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.h tm 3.3 Resistance to change from the employees and partnersResistance to change from the staff that begins to see change introduce as a treat and therefore change their perspective towards participation in the change programmes. Example of such resistance was their unwilling to contribute to data collection programmes which the company was trying to use for database in order to enhance knowledge management within the organization. However the company use consultation and staff involvement in the change planning processes to win the support of the workers to embrace the change programmes http//www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm3.4 My suggestion for the organization to resolve the different challenges facing the organization in implementing change programmesHere are things the organization can do to handle resistance, starting with kind and moral approaches and ending with the harsher end of gaining compliance.FacilitationIt has been argued that silk hat approach in creating change is by working with them, helping them achieve goals that somehow also reach to the goals of the change project. People will be very happy to work with you when you work with them. This could be said to appropriate and good practice where people are willing to support programme but finding it difficult to adjust. http//www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htmEducationWhen people are not willing to support changes due to lack of clear understanding of the benefits and the rationale behind the change programme, manger might use education to enlighten people in order to understand the benefit of the change from positive perspectives. (http//www.changeminds.org)InvolvementWhen people are not involved physically or intellectually, they are unlikely to be involved emotionally either, involving people in change planning is one of the best methods dealing with peoples resistance to chang e. Their involvement will make them support the success of the programme by persuading others to begin to see the change from the positive perspectives. (http//www.changeminds.org)NegotiationWhen position seem to have failed to yield positive result, then manager might need to introduce a round table discussion by posing them down and ask what they want, find out what they want and what they will not. Negotiate mutually agreeable solutions that satisfy them and the fundamental objective of the change. http//www.changeminds.org)ManipulationManipulation means controlling a persons environment such that they are shaped by what is around them. It can be a tempting solution, but is morally self-styled and, if they sense what you are doing, will lead to a very dangerous backlash. It is only good for short term purposes and after when all the other options has failedhttp//www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm irresistible impulseHere m anager tend to apply force in making people to accept the change threat of loss of job if fail to conform to perhaps in a humiliating public sacking. This could be used when the change is urgent and speed is considered to be of essences and the process of other alternative has been considered too slow and not likely to yield any good resulthttp//www.changeminds.org/disciplines/change_management/resistance_change/dealing_resistance.htm4.0 Conclusion The change has been seen as an agent of business growth and development. Hence change could be said to important to the organization survival especially in the highly competitive business environment, how it capable of improving the organization, leverage the organization cultural web. Therefore, managers need to evaluate change within the context of the organization cultural web with the consideration of the relevant stakeholder with an appropriate implementation strategy. This will facilitate dealing with resistance to change and peopl es corporation in achieving the fundamental objective of the change. An effective change processes will be of advantage as it will also surface way for constant review.ReferenceJohn. N (2004). Management Second Edition, published by prentice Hall LondonPorter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, November-December, 61-78Website.SainsburyArchive.http//www.museumindocklands.org.uk/English/Collections/CollectionsOnline/SainsburyArchive/Themes/Places/Expansion/Drurylane.htm. Retrieved on 2009-11-11Sainsburys goes on 83m coop spree. Press release. http//www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/mar/04/j-sainsbury-supermarkets. Retrieved 2009-05-23.http//www.sainsburys .co.ukhttp//www.mckinsey.com/careers/is_mckinsey_right_for_me/roles_and_career_paths.aspx accessed on 17/11 /2009Journals the McKinsey Quarterly conducted the survey in July 2008. http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sainsbury%27sShah, Saeed (2000-01-15). Sir Peter Davis brought back to take helm at Sainsburys. The Indep endent (Newspaper Publishing) p.19Townsend, Abigail (2006-04-23). How the Newbury process turned Sainsburys round. The Independent on Sunday (Independent Newspapers). http//www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4159/is_20060423/ai_n16212212. Retrieved 2007-02-08.Sainsburys heads back to basics. BBC News. 2004-10-19. http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3755066.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-09.http//blog.theleadershipsphere.com.au/the_leadership_sphere/2008/09/index.htmlJameson, Angela (2008-01-10). Sainsburys sales pinch defies retail gloom. The Times (Times Newspapers). http//business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/retailing/article3163999.ece.Improved supply lifts Sainsburys. BBC News. (2005-03-24). Retrieved at http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4378035.stm Retrieved on 2006-10-11.Sainsburys profits see 11% + surge. MSN News. http//news.uk.msn.com/uk/article.aspx?cp-documentid=16788775. Retrieved 2009-06-13.

Role of Cognitive Mapping in Health Care Management Decision

Role of Cognitive Mapping in Health C be Management DecisionDescribe and discuss the role of cognitive mapping in health business management decision making.Description of Cognitive MappingCognitive mapping is an operational investigate technique that consists of creating a graphical interpretation of a persons (or groups) way of thinking about an issue, and where directionality within the map is assumed to imply perceived causality among the concepts (Eden, 2004). The proposed value of the graphical representation, as argued from the field of political science, is that it births it easy to for anyone to see how concepts and causal relationships are related, and appreciate the overall bodily structure of all the assertions (Eden 2004 cited Axelrod 1976, p. 676).It is one mechanism of system dynamics simulation mannikin that generally came about as a reaction to failure of traditional approaches to capture interactions within complex problems in social systems (Edkins et al. 2007 cited Checkland 1981). It avoids the parking lot look into process pitfall of reductionism by allowing multiple conflicting views to be revealed and, providing a comprehensive picture of the participants perspectives that keeping all details to represent beliefs that are most important to stakeholders represented (Duryan, Nikolik, Merode, 2015 Eden Ackermann, 2004).Cognitive mapping was initially introduced as a method for problem digest. But recognizing its value, it has then set in motion roles in performance measurement, decision making, and strategy formulation. Eden and Ackermann (1991) expounded on the possible uses of this technique in becoming an instrument for developing consensus about shared goals, providing structure to multiple and conflicting aspects of an issue, informing negotiation, and suggesting actions to resolve issues.Use of Cognitive Mapping in Health CareCognitive mapping is argued to be best for mussy situations wherein stakeholders do not unders tand the problem or interpret them differently, and often do not realize it (Mingers 2008 cited Ackoff 1979a). Healthcare decision making falls into this earth as it has incessantly been complicated by information asymmetry, trade-offs between efficiency and equity, or moral ambiguity that become legitimate sources of uncertainty and debate among stakeholders. In fact, the first uses of cognitive mapping in operational research were in healthcare, education, and defense (Eden Ackermann, 2004).Mingers (2008) described an example in 1997 Manchester, where the UK Health Authority commissioned the Salford residential district Trust to develop an integrated approach to childrens services. Mingers argued that while the sick seemed straightforward, it turned out to be a messy problem as there was no agreement on the definitions of service specifications, services to be included, direction of the strategy, and how the project should be tackled. There were also many stakeholders involv ed in the issue (i.e. government, doctors, persevering groups, industry) that had very strong opinions about the project. If the group were to make a plan based on epidemiology, practice guidelines, budget constraints and other numerical factors alone, without taking into shape the stakeholders differing views, the proposed program would likely fail during implementation.Situations like these are common in healthcare decisions given the complexity of issues faced at doctor-patient, organizational, and national-policy level. Mathematical and statistical methods offer a narrow focus on measurable aspects of decision that fails to catch the reasoning, motivations, and interactions relevant to achieving these outcomes. Problem structuring through cognitive mapping provides an opportunity for healthcare decision makers to systematically measure these missing interactions and assess their impact to the goal under assessment (Pidd, 2004).Sachdeva et al (2007) seekd the added value of co gnitive mapping from traditional approaches in sagaciousness patient flow delays in a Pediatric Intensive Unit (PICU) of a Childrens Hospital in Wisconsin, USA. Hard operations research (OR) results using modelling were persuasive, but became inadequate to result to change given politically sensitive issues that arose. Soft OR using cognitive mapping that was make identified tender issues and offered a more holistic and comprehensive understanding of the issues complexity that helped persuade decision makers to act on the recommendations. quinine waterThe most common technique for cognitive mapping is the Strategic Options Development Method (SODA). SODA is an ethnographic method derived from interviews that are intended to represent the participants subjective worlds the theoretical basis of which is explained by individualised construct possible action (Eden 2004 cited Kelly 1995) wherein people make sense of their world by seeking to manage and control it.SODA uses a formal modelling technique with rules for its development as described by a user guide developed by Eden and Ackerman (Ackermann et al., 1991). The transcripts of the interviews are separated into short distinct phrases (nodes) that at long last get sorted as goals, strategic directions, or potential natural selections. Fidelity in transcription is imperative to represent the participants intentions and to bear on ownership of the resulting map created. The concepts are linked (arrows) to determine accurate subordination of concepts, directionality and opposing poles to create the overall structure. While the map is an important output of its own, these can also be subject to further analysis to gain deeper insight, such asAnalysisMap CharacteristicsGoalsHead analysisNodes with only incoming arrowsTo identify end goals or effectsDensity analysisNumber of mentions of the conceptsTo determine potential find out issues from the perspectives of the participants that may need further exami nationCentrality analysisNumber of links to the concept, or ratio of arrows to conceptsTo measure the importance and complexity of the concepts implication chainHierarchical cluster analysisNumber of concepts in chain or arguments linked to optionTo identify most potent options or valued outcomes to influence on the goalsPotency analysisNumber of goals each option supportsTo prioritize options with consequences for the biggest number of key issuesComposite tail analysisRanking of potency analysisTo determine the single action that may cause multiple goals to be achievedSource stocky by AuthorHealthcare Example of Using SODAA case study by Duryan et al. (2015) on talented disability care in Netherlands made use of SODA to determine factors that adversely affect delivery of patient-centered care as evidence for future resource allocation. Following SODA guidelines, the group conducted one-on-one, semi-structured, hour-long interviews with the managers and patient group leaders with in one division of a residential care facility. Initially, they were thought to have contrasting goals financial sustainability for the managers and quality of care from resource constraints for the patients. Using the Decision Explorer software, cognitive maps were created and merged to reflect the combined views. Key assumptions were then discussed and verified, and follow-up focus group discussions with different subgroups of the patients (young vs old) and their families were done to refine the ideas represented by the initial group. The merged map was then subject to head, domain, centrality, potency analysis, and composite tail analysis.Results showed that group leader freedom to make decisions, flexible shifts, and time spent with patients were the most potent options/solutions, and therefore needed quick action by the managers. According to the researchers, the exercise successfully facilitated critical analysis of the problem and fostered ownership of the proposed solution s by all stakeholders. Seeing the different/ opposing thoughts organized and their end-goals similar also helped reach consensus and manage disagreements.Expansions of SODAWhile SODA provides solutions to complex strategic processes, it lacks a mechanism to allow for agreement among the strategies to be developed. SODA was developed further into JOURNEY Making (JOintly Understanding Reflecting and NEgotiating strategY) to become a process-oriented and management-science strategy by using the composite map in a workshop setting as a tool to help negotiation and explore policy options that will allow the issue to be intelligently resolved (Mingers, 2008). Another method, the Oval Mapping Technique (OMT), creates a cognitive map but through a highly participative strategy workshops.White et al (2007) used JOURNEY Making to collect and define public values and voices among stakeholders involved in a community hospital project in South London. Intergroup workshops were done in phases to map/graph the issues and options related to the decision. The process resulted to wide acceptance of the recommendations and an official plan enacted by the Department of Health. This is one among many examples of the opportunity to use these newer OR tools in healthcare strategy management planning at both organizations and the national policy arena.LimitationsCognitive mapping provides an opportunity to deal with messy problems in a systematic way, but general acceptance of it as a method is still lacking. Mingers (2008) explains that especially in the United States, it is viewed as a soft OR method not regarded for publication in top journals nor education in courses among top schools.The concerns on subjectivity of results remain valid that even though the process is systematic and rigorous, they are still variable and dependent on both study design and recruitment. The cognitive maps developed will depend largely on the choice of participants, their active participation, their personal motivations, and the assumption that they are adequately informed of the problem. And the probability of one person skewing the result is high given the small sample (i.e. 4-10 people) used for these activities. The method also assumes adequate facilitation by the research team to determine the key nodes and domains, which may not always be the case.Also, while cognitive mapping provides a snapshot of the decision making, it does not promote understanding over time periods and cannot be used to derive numerical assessments of its impact (Pidd, 2004).Cross-validation or triangulation using many models of the same issue may be done to increase its validity (Abernethy et al, 2005). Combination of soft and hard methodologies is believed to increase acceptance and sustain organization change especially in healthcare settings (Sachdeva et al., 2007). And, it should always be used in conjunction with other methods for research data gathering, monitoring, performance measurement, or decision support.Lastly, for cognitive mapping to be useful in decision support, it requires the decision makers to understand the method/process, recognize the value of the issues at the front line, take the results seriously, and act on the recommendations. It is therefore crucial for any research team using this method to help the decision makers appreciate the approach and engage with the recommendations.ReferenceAbernethy, M. A., Horne, M., Lillis, A. M., Malina, M. A., Selto, F. H. (2005). A multi-method approach to building causal performance maps from full knowledge. Management Accounting Research, 16(2), 135-155. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.mar.2005.03.003Ackermann, F. ., Cropper, S. A., Eden, C. L. (1991). Cognitive Mapping for Community practicable Research-A Users Guide. (E. Munford, A., Bailey, T., Ed.), Operational research tutorial papers.Duryan, M., Nikolik, D., Merode, G. Van. (2015). Reflecting on the efficacy of cognitive mapping for decision-making in intell ectual disability care a case study. International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 30(August 2013), 127-144. https//doi.org/10.1002/hpm.2215Eden, C. (2004). Analyzing cognitive maps to help structure issues or problems. European Journal of Operational Research, 159(3), 673-686. https//doi.org/10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00431-4Eden, C., Ackermann, F. (2004). Cognitive mapping expert views for policy analysis in the public sector. European Journal of Operational Research, 152(3), 615-630. https//doi.org/10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00061-4Edkins, A. J., Kurul, E., Maytorena-Sanchez, E., Rintala, K. (2007). The application of cognitive mapping methodologies in project management research. International Journal of Project Management, 25(8), 762-772. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2007.04.003Mingers, J. (2008). Reaching the Problems that Traditional OR/MS Methods Cannot Reach. Centerbury. https//doi.org/10.1080/00369220601100075Pidd, M. (2004). Systems Modelling Theory and Practice. Systems Modelling Theory and Practice. Retrieved from http//www.untag-smd.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_1/DECISION MAKING Systems modelling, theory and practice.pdfpage=16Sachdeva, R., Williams, T., Quigley, J. (2007). Mixing Methodologies to Enhance the Implementation of Healthcare Operational Research. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 58(2), 159-167. https//doi.org/10.2307/4622680White, L., Bourne, H. (2007). Voices and values Linking values with participation in OR/MS in public policy making. Omega, 35(5), 588-603. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.omega.2005.11.002

Difference Between Memory And Data Storage Computer Science Essay

Difference Between retrospect And Data stock board calculator Science EssayThe terms retentiveness and in bodation retention ar a great deal conf apply. Both retrospect and entropy terminus argon means by which a selective information processor keeps data used to perform tasks. Both of them are measured in bytes. The term repositing refers to the step of Random Access depot (RAM) yet similarly includes Read-Only retentivity ( fixed storage) installed in the data processor, whereas the term estimator entrepot refers to the qualification of the calculating machines hard disk.Figure 12 Difference between storage and Data StorageFor example, in figure 12, the file console table represents the calculators hard disk, which provides transshipment center for all the files and study we take in your office. When we exercise in to incline, we take out the files we need from warehousing and put them on our desk for blowsy access while we work on them. The desk is like reposition in the computer. It holds the training and data we need to collect handy while youre running(a)s.The of import(prenominal) exit between keeping and data storage is their enjoyment. Storage is used to hold all the computers information. Data terminald in the hard disk is permanent and it is not lose when the computer is turned off. When we delete a file, scarcely the access to that file is removed, not the information itself. To permanently delete a file, the hard disk moldiness be formatted or overwritten. It is raze possible that level(p) though a disk has been formatted, an expert fuel still view the information.Memory and data storage can work together. When the computer does not attain enough RAM to support its processes, it converts a portion of the hard disk into virtual holding. Virtual shop acts the same way RAM does. However, since it is a part of the hard disk, using virtual holding slows the computer obliterate.2.2 Internal Memory a nd External MemoryComputer internal storage is used to neckcloth data that is used by the constitution at startup and to run various oddballs of programs such as the run clay. Typically, internal recollection is contained on small micro take to the woodss that are either attached or connected to the computers motherboard. Computer entrepot can range from a equal of megabytes to several gigabytes. SRAM, DRAM, and ROM are the example of internal memory.External computer memory is technically any storage doojigger that we can connect to our computer to record data. Flash drives, HDD with USB cable, any SD card are the example of external memory.2.3 Hierarchy of StorageGenerally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the mainframe computer. This traditional division of storage to primary, second-string, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. Historically, memory has been called loa ding, main memory, unfeigned storage or internal memory while storage contrivances have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or peripheral storage.2.3.1 Primary StorageIn computer memory the term primary storage or primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which function at high-speed as a difference from secondary storage. Primary storage often referred to simply as memory, is the only adept this instant accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously submits instructions stored there and executes them as required. Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually cardinal buses, an address bus and a data bus. The CPU set-back of allly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address that indicates the desired location of data. Then it get a lines or bring throughs the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.2.3.2 substitute StorageSecondary storage or secondary memory is physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer high memory capacity. It differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is queened down because it is non-volatile. In modern computers, hard disk drives are usually used as secondary storage and it is typically about a million propagation slower than memory. Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are USB flash drives, floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM disks, and Iomega Zip drives.2.3.3 third storageTertiary storage or tertiary memory provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which willing mount and dismount removable bay window storage media into a storage device according to the systems demands, these data are often copied to secondary storage before use. It is much slower than secondary storage. This is earlier useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog database to determine which tape or disc contains the information and then the computer will instruct a robotic arm to fetch the specialty and fundament it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library.2.3.4 off-line storageOff-line storage is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.Off-line storage is used to transfer information. Additionally, in case a disaster like a fire destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will probably be unaffected, enabling disaster recovery.In modern personal computers, intimately secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. optical discs and flash memory devices are close to popular, and to much lesser extent removable hard disk drives. In enterprise uses, magnetic tape is predominant. Older examples are floppy disks, Zip disks, or punched cards.2.4 Characteristics of Storage2.4.1 VolatilityVolatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information and non-volatile memory is computer memory that can ret ain the stored information even when not powered. That is why the contents of RAM are erased when the power of the computer is turned off but ROM holds its data indefinitely. The fastest memory technologies of today are volatile ones. Non-volatile memory is suitable for long-term storage of information.2.4.2 MutabilityRead/write storage or mutable storage allows information to be overwritten at any prison term. A computer without many step of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage.Read only storage retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and allows the information to be written only once at some pull down after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include CD-ROM and CD-R.Slow write, fast read storage is the read/write storage which allows information to be overwr itten multiple times, but with the write operation existence much slower than the read operation. Examples include CD-RW and flash memory.2.4.3 accessibilityIn random access, any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Most semiconductor unit memories and disk drives provide random access.In sequential access, the accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other, therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.2.4.4 AddressabilityIn modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage. Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical memory address.In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use files addressable system s. schooling is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-readable directory and file names.Content-addressable storage can be implemented using software or hardware, hardware being faster but more(prenominal) expensive option. Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of the contents stored there.2.4.5 CapacityThe total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold is raw capacity.Memory storage density is a measure of the quantity of information bits that can be stored on a given length of track, area of surface, or in a given volume of a computer storage medium. Generally, higher(prenominal) density is more desirable, for it allows greater volumes of data to be stored in the same physical length. Density therefore has a direct relationship to storage capacity of a given medium.2.4.6 PerformanceLatency is a measure of time delay experienced in a system, the precise definition of which depends on the system and the time being measured. The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant unit of measurement is typically nanosecond for primary storage, millisecond for secondary storage, and second for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and mediocre latency.In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network throughput is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second, though bit rate may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput.2.5 Fundamental Storage TechnologiesThe most commonly used data storage technologies are semiconductor, magnetic, an d optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies have also been used in the past or are proposed for knowledge.2.5.1 SemiconductorSemiconductor memory is an electronic data storage device, often used as computer memory, implemented on a semiconductor-based integrated circuit. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. It is made in many different types and technologies.Semiconductor memory has the property of random access, which means that it takes the same amount of time to access any memory location. Semiconductor memory also has much faster access times than other types of data storage. A byte of data can be written to or read from semiconductor memory at heart a few nanoseconds, while access time for rotating storage such as hard disks is in the range of milliseconds. For these reasons it is used for main computer memory or primary storage, to hold data the computer is currently working on, among other uses.2.5.2 MagneticMagnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetisation on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data.2.5.3 OpticalOptical storage is a term from engineering referring to the Storage of data on an optically readable medium. Data is recorded by making marks in a pattern that can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser light precisely focused on a spinning disc. An older example, that does not require the use of computers, is microform.2.5.4 PaperPaper data storage refers to the use of paper as a data storage device. This includes writing, illustrating, and the use of data that can be interpreted by a machine or is the result of t he functioning of a machine. Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically to determine whether a particular location on the medium was secure or contained a holeApr 142Computer Organization and ArchitectureFacebookTwitterGoogleTumblrComputer MemoryChapter 1 Introduction to Computer MemoryFigure 1 An Imaginary Computer MemoryTo know about the detail of computer memory, first of all we should know what is memory? and then what is computer memory?.As we know the memory is a power to remember things. In psychology, memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. But in computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs or data on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or o ther digital electronic device.Computer data storage, often called storage or memory. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers. A computers memory can be said as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered address and can store a single number. In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary star numbers in groups of eight bits. A bit is the basic unit of information in computing and telecommunications. A bit can have only two values, either 1 or 0. Eight bits form a byte. Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers either from 0 to 255 or 128 to +127. To store larger numbers several consecutive bytes typically two, four or eight may be used. When negative numbers are required they are usually stored in tows complement notation which is a mathematical operation on binary numbers.A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. The information st ored in memory may represent possiblely anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. A computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of data, it is the softwares responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. In computer architecture, the CPU contains a special set of memory cells which is called registers. A processor register can be read and written too much faster than the main memory area. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed.1.1 First Computer MemoryThe first computers were often very large, usually as big as a desk or even a room and had minimal processing capability. These early computers were built to work on specific problems or solve certain types of equations and not much more.The first computers used punch cards for input and had very limited memory for processing. The average memory in the first computers was between three and twoscore five kilo-bits Memory was used to store data in the processing of analog equations, and the results were then printed in binary.When compared to the computers available today, the first computers do not seem very technologically advanced, but at the time they were created these first computers were engineering masterpieces. legion(predicate) of the concepts created when building early computers are still in use in modern computing technology.The Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) credited with being the very first computer. The ABC had a whopping 3000 bits of memory which allowed it to process sixty items at one time. Other early computers had more memory. Some has high as forty five kilobits, which allowed them to process severa l more words of data in a shorter amount of time increasing the overall processing speed of the system.Without the first computers and their ability to make mere(a) calculations, the technology we use today might not be as advanced as it has become.1.2 History of Computer MemoryIn 1940s memory technology for the most part permitted few bytes capacity. The first electronic programmable digital computer the ENIAC (ElectronicNumericalIntegratorandComputer) using thousands of octal base radio hoover tubes. In electronics, a vacuumtube is a device controlling electric current through a vacuum in a sealed container. The ENIAC could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits which were held in the vacuum tube accumulators.The next significant advance in computer memory delaylinememory. It was a form of computer memory used on some of the earliest digital computers. comparable many modern forms of electronic computer memory, delay line memory was a refreshabl e memory but it was opposed to modern random access memory. Delay line memory was sequential access. Delay lines could store bits of information within a quartz and transfer it through sound waves propagating through mercury. Delay line memory would be limited to a capacity of up to a few hundred thousand bits to remain efficient.In 1946 two alternatives to the delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube, both using electron beams in glass tubes for storage. The Williams tube would boot out more capacious than the Selectron tube because the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands. It was also less expensive than Selectron tube.To find non-volatile memory Jay Forrester, Jan A. Rajchman and An Wang developed magnetic core memory in the late 1940s. It was allowed for recall of memory after power loss. Magnetic core memory would become the dominant form of memory until the development of transistor-based memory in the late 1960s.1.2. 1 Hist orical Development of Computer MemoryComputer memory is much more than DRAM or Flash. It has come a long way up until the origins of todays omnipresent memory technologies. If we take it more than 160 years back in time and revisit the milestones of computer memory technology then products we may have never heard of.1.2.1.1 hit CardsFigure 2 Punch CardsApunched card is a piece ofstiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Earlydigital computers used punched cards as the primary medium for input of bothcomputer programs anddata. In 1837 Charles Babbage first purposed the Analytical Engine, which was the first computer to use punch cards as memory and a way to program the computer. Punch cards also known as Hollerith cardsand IBM cardsare paper cards containing several punched holes that where originally punched by hand and later by computers that represent data. Hollerithspunchcardsused in the 1890 number ha d round holes, 12 speechs and 24 columns. The IBMpunchedcard designed in 1928, had rectangular holes, 80 columns with 12 punch locations and each one character to each column. So 80 x 12 = 960, this gives us a maximum capacity of 960 bits or 125 bytes of data. The use of punch cards predates computers. They were used as early as 1725 in the textile industry for controlling mechanized textile looms. From the 1900s, into the 1950s, punched cards were the primary medium for data entry,data storage, and processing in institutional computing. As of 2012, some voting machinesstill utilize punched cards to input data. During the 1960s, the punched card was gradually replaced by magnetic tape.1.2.1.2 Drum MemoryFigure 3 DrumMemoryDrummemory is an obsolete magnetic data storage device. A stick is a large metal cylinder that is coated on the outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording material. It could be considered the precursor to the hard disk platter, but in the form of a drum rath er than a flat disk. In most cases a row of fixed read-write heads runs along the long axis of the drum, one for each track. The drums of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer stored information using regenerative capacitor memory. Regenerativecapacitormemory is a type of computer memory that uses the electric property of capacitance to store the bits of data. A difference between most drums and a modern hard disk drive is that on a drum there was a track per head so that the heads do not have to move to the track to access data. Head per track disks were used mostly for paging. Particularly while drums were used as main working memory, programmers often took to positioning code onto the drum in such a way as to reduce the amount of time needed to find the next instruction. In 1932 Austrian IT engineer Gustav Tauschek invented the first widely used computer memory, called drum memory. In 1942 John Atanasoff successfully tests the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) which was the first computer to use regenerative capacitor drum memory. It was widely used in the 1950s and 60s as the main working memory of computers. Tauscheks original drum memory had a capacity of about 500,000 bits or 62.5 kilobytes. One of the early ken-produced computers, IBM 650, had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory, which in a later model was doubled to about 17 kilobytes. Some drum memories were also used as secondary storage. Drums were later replaced as the main working memory by memory such as core memory.1.2.1.3 Williams TubeFigure 4 Williams TubeFreddie Williams applies for a patent on his cathode-ray tube (CRT) storing device in 1946. The device that later became known as the Williams tube or Williams- Kilburn tube. It was used as a computer memory to electronically store binary data. It was the first random-access digital storage device. The Williams tube depends on an effect called secondary emission. When a spatter is drawn on a cathode ray tube, the area of the dot becomes slightly positi vely vote downd and the area immediately around it becomes slightly negatively charged, creating a charge well which is unable to convert to another type of energy. The charge well remains on the surface of the tube for a fraction of a second, allowing the device to act as a computer memory. The charge well lifetime depends on the electrical resistance of the inside of the tube.By drawing a second dot immediately next to the first one the dot can be erased. Information is read from the tube by means of a metal pickup plate that covers the face of the tube. Each time a dot is created or erased, the change in electrical charge induces a voltage pulse in the pickup plate. There is no practical restriction in the order of positions so it is called random-access nature of the lookup.Reading a memory location creates a new charge well, destroying the original contents of that location, and so any read has to be followed by a write to reinstate the original data. Since the charge graduall y leaked away, it was necessary to scan the tube periodically and revisal every dot.Some Williams tubes were made from radar-type cathode ray tubes with a phosphor coating that made the data visible. Each Williams tube could store about 512-1024 bits of data.1.2.1.4 Selectron TubeFigure 5 Selectron TubeBetween 1946 and 1953 Jan Rajchman begins his work on developing the Selectron tube. The original 4096-bit Selectron was a large, 5 inch by 3 inch vacuum tube with a cathode running up the middle, surrounded by two separate sets of wires forming a cylindrical grid, a dielectric material outside of the grid, and finally a cylinder of metal conductor outside the dielectric, called the signal plate. The smaller capacity 256-bit system was constructed similarly, but built in a planar fashion rather than cylindrical,resulting in an even larger vacuum tube. The device used an indirectly heated cathode running up the middle, surrounded by two separate sets of wires and offered a storage cap acity of 4096 bits to 256 in the proposed production device. The Williams tube was an example of a general class of cathode ray tube (CRT) devices known as storage tubes. The primary function of a conventional CRT is to display an image by lighting phosphor using a beam of electrons fired at it from an electron gun at the back of the tube. Like the Williams Kilburn tube, the Selectron was also a random access storage device. Because of the popularity of magnetic core memory at the time, the Selectron tube was never put into mass production.1.2.1.5 Magnetic-core MemoryFigure 6 Magnetic-core MemorySecond major milestone in modern computer memory technology was magnetic core memory which was widely adopted. Core memory or magnetic core memory became a widespread form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings and was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It is said to be non-volatile and will not lose its contents when the power is removed. The te rm core comes from conventional transformers whose windings surround a magnetic core. The basic principle of core memory was using a core as a ring of ferrite that could be magnetized in one of two directions. As a result, the memory was able to store digital information either a 1 or 0. In core memory the wires twirl once through any given core, they are single turn devices. The core can take two states, encoding one bit, which can be read when selected by a sense wire. When the core is read, it is reset to a zero which is known as destructive readout. Circuits in the computer memory system then restore the information in an immediate re-write cycle. Magnetic core memory was initially very expensive to fabricate but prices dropped as the market developed. It was the standard form of memory system until displaced by solid-state memory in integrated circuits, starting in the early 1970s.1.2.1.6 Random access MemoryFigure 7 Random access MemoryRandom-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. A random-access device allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. Today, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits which is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate or chip of semiconductor material, normally silicon. One distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is possible both to read data from the memory and to write new data into the memory easily and rapidly. Both the reading and writing are accomplished the use of electrical signals. The other distinguishing characteristic of RAM is that it is volatile. A RAM must be provided with a constant power supply. If the power is interrupted, then the data are lost. Thus, RAM can be used only as temporary storage.The three main forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM) and phase-change memory (PRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a flip-flop. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce but is generally faster and req uires less power than DRAM. In modern computers, it is often used as cache memory for the CPU.DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair which together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low (0 or 1) charge and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitors state of charge or change it.Phase-change memory is also known as PRAM, is a type of non-volatile random-access memory. PRAM can offer much higher performance in applications where writing quickly is important, both because the memory element can be switched more quickly and also because single bits may be changed to either 1 or 0 without needing to first erase an entire block of cells. PRAMs high performance, thousands of times faster than conventional hard drives, makes it particularly arouse in nonvolatile memory roles that are currently performance-limited by memory access timing.ECC memory, which can be either SRAM or DRAM, includes spe cial circuitry to watch or correct random faults or memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction code. A parity bit or check bit is a bit added to the end of a string of binary code that indicates whether the number of bits in the string with the value one is even or odd. Parity bits are used as the simplest form of error detecting code. In information theory and coding theory with applications in computer science and telecommunication, error detection and correction or error control are techniques that enable reliable delivery of digital data over undependable communication channels.Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of CPU registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as RAM by many developers.1.2.1.7 Read Only MemoryFigure 8 Read Only MemoryRead-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers. Da ta stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty. It is really only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device.When only a small number of ROMs with particular memory content is needed, a less expensive alternative is the programmable ROM (PROM). Like the ROM, the PROM is nonvolatile and may be written into only once. For the PROM, the writing process is performed electrically and may be performed by a supplier or customer at a time later than the original chip fabrication. Special equipment is required for the writing or programming process.Another variation on read only memory is the read mostly memory, which is useful for applications in which read operations far more frequent than write operation but for which nonvolatile storage is required. There are three common forms of read mostly memory, they are EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory.The optically erasable programmable read only memory (EPR OM) is read and written electrically, as with PROM. However, before a write operation, all the storage cells must be erased to the same initial state by exposure of the packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation. Erasure is performed by shining an intense ultraviolet light through a window that is designed into the memory chip. This expunction process can be performed repeatedly. It has the advantage of the multiple update capability.A more attractive form of read mostly memory is electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM). This is a read mostly memory that can be written into at any time without erasing prior contents, only the byte or bytes addressed are update. The write operation takes considerably longer than the read operation, on the other of several hundred microseconds per byte. The EEPROM combines the advantage of nonvolatility with the flexibility of being updatable in place, using ordinary bus control, address, and data lines. It is suppor

Chaucers Canterbury Tales - Comparing The Pardoners Tale and The Nuns

Irony in The Pardoners Tale and The Nuns Priests Tale Irony is the general name given to literary techniques that engage surprising, interesting,or amusing contradictions. 1 Two stories that serve as excellent demonstrations of irony are The Pardoners Tale and The Nuns Priests Tale, both from Chaucers The Canterbury Tales. Although these two stories are very different, they both office irony to teach a lesson. Of the stories, The Pardoners Tale displays the most irony. First and foremost, the entire telling of the story is ironic, considering just who is the teller. The Pardoner uses this story to speak out against legion(predicate) social problems, all of which he himself is guilty of. He preaches about drunkenness, while he is drunk, blasphemy, as he attempts to sell fake religious relics, and greed, when he himself is surprisingly greedy. Yet there are also many ironic situations in the story itself. The irony starts when, in the begining of the story, the three ri oters make a pact to be brothers and each defend the others and to live and die for one another in protection from Death, (lines 37-43) and then in going out to fulfill their vow, they end up finding money, and killing each other over it. Even more ironic, is how they end up killing each other. After finding the money, the men invention to stay with it until it becomes dark and they can safely take it outdoor(a). To tide themselves over until then, they send the youngest one out to get food and wine, and while he is away they plan to kill for his share of the money. Ironically, the youngest one is planning the same thing so he slips poison into the drinks... ...tion. By teaching this in two very different stories Chaucer makes it very clear that irony is an extremely effective method of teaching a lesson. Works Cited and Consulted Arrathoon, Leigh A. The Pardoners Tale, Chaucer and the Craft of Fiction. Ed. Leigh A. Arrathoon, Rochester, Michigan Solaris Press, Inc. 1986. 241-318 Beidler, Peter G. The Nuns Priests Tale Chaucer round Vol 34, Issue 4. April 01, 2000. 388-397 Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales Riverside Chaucer Third Edition. Ed. Larry D. Benson. Boston Houghton Mifflin Company,1987. 3-328 Secondary Taavitsainen, Irma. Personality and styles of Affect in the Canterbury Tales Chaucer in Perspective. Ed. Geoffrey Lester.Midsomer North, Bath Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. 1999. 218-232 White, Annie Irony in Chaucers Tales, 20 Jan. 2001.

Switched Networks :: essays research papers

Switched NetworksNetworks are getting more and more popular, and because of this more people use them, which slows them down. Networks in the future will need to have enough bandwidth to stick up applications, like multimedia, witch require larger bandwidth. Switching will change the way networks are designed. These changes will maximize productivity. Switching technology is increasing the competency and speed of networks. This technology is making current systems more powerful. Mevery networks are experiencing bandwidth shortages. There are several reasons for this including an increase in relations, because networks have so many another(prenominal) users, Amount of data between client/server applications, and the in in effect(p) traffic patterns of most networks.Switching directs network traffic in a very efficient manner. It sends information directly from the port of origin directly to its destination port. Switching increases network performance, enhances flexibility and ea ses moves, add-ons and changes. One of the benefits of switching is that it maintains a direct line of talk between two ports, and maintains multiple simultaneous links between various ports. It reduces network traffic by reducing media sharing. This technology has some benefits over ethernet routed networks. First, a 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps shared media can be changed to 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps of dedicated bandwidth. Routers have many devices attached to their ports, sharing the bandwidth. Switches permit you to connect either a shared segment of bandwidth (workgroup) or a dedicated sensation (server) to each port. Second, this can be done without changing any software or hardware already on the workstations Finally, a switch installation is less complex than a bridge/router configuration.A ethernet LAN runs at 10 Mbps. Stations attach through a hub or repeater. Every station can receive transmissions from all of the stations, but only in a half-duplex. This means that stations cannot send and receive data simultaneously. In a ethernet network only one packet can transmit at one time, this is what slows down networks. The bridge, the router and the switch, all attempt to reduce transmission time to increase performance. A two-port bridge splits a network into two physical segments and only lets a transmission cross if its destination is on the other side. It also will only move a packet to the other side if it is necessary. This reduces network traffic because traffic on one side stays local. Routers link multiple networks together. It maintains the flow of traffic and routes data to the network that it must go to.